Odoacer was a German warrior, the son of Idico (Edeco) and probably a member of the Sciri tribe. [...] It is therefore futile to speculate about identity or blood relationships between H(s)iung-nu, Hephthalites, and Attila's Huns, for instance. [138] Roman descriptions of the Huns, meanwhile, are often highly biased, stressing their supposed primitiveness. Artistic interpretation of Attila leading mounted Huns across Europe. [218], A major source of information on steppe warfare from the time of the Huns comes from the 6th-century Strategikon, which describes the warfare of "Dealing with the Scythians, that is, Avars, Turks, and others whose way of life resembles that of the Hunnish peoples." [210] An important strategy used by the Huns was a feigned retreat−pretending to flee and then turning and attacking the disordered enemy. Leading his army across the Alps and into Northern Italy, he sacked and razed a number of cities. "[166] Priscus said that Attila's "Scythian" subjects spoke "besides their own barbarian tongues, either Hunnish, or Gothic, or, as many have dealings with the Western Romans, Latin; but not one of them easily speaks Greek, except captives from the Thracian or Illyrian frontier regions". As warriors, the Huns inspired almost unparalleled fear throughout Europe. [278] Unlike in the legend, the Székely were resettled in Transylvania from Western Hungary in the eleventh century. In an anonymous medieval biography of Pope Leo I, Attila's march into Italy in 452 is stopped because, when he meets Leo outside Rome, the apostles Peter and Paul appear to him holding swords over his head and threatening to kill him unless he follows the pope's command to turn back. [145] Maenchen-Helfen argues that the cauldrons were cooking vessels for boiling meat,[146] but that the fact that many are found deposited near water and were generally not buried with individuals may indicate a sacral usage as well. The most clear correlation between America and Germany’s rivalry in World War I and anti-German sentiment in America was the harassment German-Americans experienced in response to their assumed ties with Germany. During the negotiations, a Hun in service of the Romans named Chelchel persuaded the enemy Goths to attack their Hun overlords. [120] Heather, however, argues that Ammianus merely means that the Huns didn't have a single ruler; he notes that Olympiodorus mentions the Huns having several kings, with one being the "first of the kings". Various proposed etymologies generally assume at least that the names of the various Eurasian groups known as Huns are related. Variants of the Hun name are recorded in the Caucasus until the early 8th century. [219] They are described as preferring to defeat their enemies by deceit, surprise attacks, and cutting off supplies. The issue remains controversial. To build Cannon Galleons, the Cannon Galleon technology must be researched first. [157] Ammianus reports that they wore clothes made of linen or the furs of marmots and leggings of goatskin. [243] Memories of the conflicts between the Goths and Huns in Eastern Europe appear to be maintained in the Old English poem Widsith as well as in the Old Norse poem "The Battle of the Goths and Huns", which is transmitted in the thirteenth-century Icelandic Hervarar Saga. [68] War broke out between the Huns and Romans, and the Huns overcame a weak Roman army to raze the cities of Margus, Singidunum and Viminacium. Once in Gaul, the Huns first attacked Metz, then his armies continued westwards, passing both Paris and Troyes to lay siege to Orléans. The Huns brought large numbers of horses to use as replacements and to give the impression of a larger army on campaign. [271] Hyun Jin Kim supposes that the Hungarians might be linked to the Huns via the Bulgars and Avars, both of whom he holds to have had Hunnish elements. The Amali Goths would revolt the same year under Valamir, allegedly defeating the Huns in a separate engagement. [40] Maenchen-Helfen argues that, while many Huns had East Asian racial characteristics, they were unlikely to have looked as Asiatic as the Yakut or Tungus. [102] More recent scholarship, however, has demonstrated that pastoral nomadists are actually more likely to use slave labor than sedentary societies: the slaves would have been used to manage the Huns' herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. [79] Ancient sources mention that the Huns' herds consisted of various animals, including cattle, horses, and goats; sheep, though unmentioned in ancient sources, "are more essential to the steppe nomad even than horses"[80] and must have been a large part of their herds. [251] In the legends about Dietrich von Bern, Attila and the Huns provide Dietrich with a refuge and support after he has been driven from his kingdom at Verona. Just as a thousand years ago, the Huns under Attila won a reputation of might that lives on in legends, so may the name of Germany in China, such that no Chinese will even again dare so much as to look askance at a German. He devastated the Balkans and drove south into Greece as far as Thermopylae.. [117], Ammianus said that the Huns of his day had no kings, but rather that each group of Huns instead had a group of leading men (primates) for times of war . [88] Kim similarly argues that all steppe empires have possessed both pastoralist and sedentary populations, classifying the Huns as "agro-pastoralist". The Huns have traditionally been described as pastoral nomads, living off of herding and moving from pasture to pasture to graze their animals. [108] Roman gold coins appear to have been in circulation as currency within the whole of the Hunnic Empire. [27] Classical sources also frequently use the names of older and unrelated steppe nomads instead of the name Hun, calling them Massagetae, Scythians and Cimmerians, among other names. By 432 the leadership of the various groups of Huns had been centralized under a single king, Rua, or Rugila. [106] He notes that the Romans strictly regulated trade with the barbarians and that, according to Priscus, trade only occurred at a fair once a year. This article was most recently revised and updated by Michael Ray, Editor. [90] It is not possible to determine the exact breed of horse the Huns used, despite relatively good Roman descriptions. [29] Otto Maenchen-Helfen dismisses all of these Turkic etymologies as "mere guesses". The joint rulers negotiated a peace treaty at Margus (now Požarevac, Serbia) with the Eastern Roman Empire, by which the Romans agreed to double the subsidies they had been paying the Huns. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00438-017-1363-8, devastating defeat by the Chinese Han dynasty, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, List of terms used for Germans § Hun (pejorative), "A székelyek eredete: elméletek, tények, történelem", "A Contribution to the Study of Lamellar Armours", "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes", "The Huns and the End of the Roman Empire in Western Europe", "Genetic evidence suggests a sense of family, parity and conquest in the Xiongnu Iron Age nomads of Mongolia", "Hungarian Turanism. [77] Hyun Jin Kim, however, holds the term "nomad" to be misleading: [T]he term 'nomad', if it denotes a wandering group of people with no clear sense of territory, cannot be applied wholesale to the Huns. They were found to be carrying the paternal haplogroups Q1a2, R1b1a1b1a1a1 and R1a1a1b2a2. [205] Like Ammianus, the sixth-century writer Zosimus also emphasizes the Huns' almost exclusive use of horse archers and their extreme swiftness and mobility. [14], Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen was the first to challenge the traditional approach, based primarily on the study of written sources, and to emphasize the importance of archaeological research. The Nibelung legend, particularly as recorded in the Old Norse Poetic Edda and Völsunga saga, as well as in the German Nibelungenlied, connects the Huns and Attila (and in the Norse tradition, Attila's death) to the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom on the Rhine in 437. The date on which he assumed power, 476, is traditionally considered the end of the Western Roman Empire. [226][227] Hun lamellar armour has not been found in Europe, although two fragments of likely Hun origin have been found on the Upper Ob and in West Kazakhstan dating to the 3rd–4th centuries. Priscus noted that the Hunnic language differed from other languages spoken at Attila's court. [109], Christopher Atwood has suggested that the reason for the original Hunnic incursion into Europe may have been to establish an outlet to the Black Sea for the Sogdian merchants under their rule, who were involved in the trade along the Silk Road to China. [222] Heather makes note of multiple possible routes for acquisition of this knowledge, suggesting that it could have been brought back from service under Aetius, acquired from captured Roman engineers, or developed through the need to pressure the wealthy silk road city states and carried over into Europe. [166] He recounts how Attila's jester Zerco made Attila's guests laugh also by the "promiscuous jumble of words, Latin mixed with Hunnish and Gothic. [246] The name Attila, rendered in Old English as Ætla, was a given name in use in Anglo-Saxon England (e.g. About 445 Attila murdered his brother Bleda and in 447, for unknown reasons, made his second great attack on the Eastern Roman Empire. [127], Priscus also speaks of "picked men" or logades (λογάδες) forming part of Attila's government, naming five of them. [12] Scholars also discussed the relationship between the Xiongnu, the Huns, and a number of people in central Asia who were also known as or came to be identified with the name "Hun" or "Iranian Huns". All we can safely say is that the name Huns, in late antiquity, described prestigious ruling groups of steppe warriors. The Huns ruled over a variety of peoples who spoke various languages and some of whom maintained their own rulers. [187] Maenchen-Helfen also argues that, while the Huns themselves do not appear to have regarded Attila as divine, some of his subject people clearly did. [155] They are also known to have made small mirrors of an originally Chinese type, which often appear to have been intentionally broken when placed into a grave. [277] László Makkai notes as well that some archaeologists and historians believe Székelys were a Hungarian tribe or an Onogur-Bulgar tribe drawn into the Carpathian Basin at the end of the 7th century by the Avars (who were identified with the Huns by contemporary Europeans). [280][281] While the Hungarians and the Székelys may not be descendants of the Huns, they were historically closely associated with Turkic peoples. These descriptions typically caricature the Huns as monsters. The Romans, under their General Aspar and with the help of his bucellarii, then attacked the quarreling Goths and Huns, defeating them. [209] In particular, while Ammianus claims that the Huns knew no metalworking, Maenchen-Helfen argues that a people so primitive could never have been successful in war against the Romans. [223] David Nicolle agrees with the latter point, and even suggests they had a complete set of engineering knowledge including skills for constructing advanced fortifications, such as the fortress of Igdui-Kala in Kazakhstan.[224]. [177] Ammianus Marcellinus claimed that the Hunnish women lived in seclusion, however the first-hand account of Priscus shows them freely moving and mixing with men. [86] He argues that the Huns were forced to supplement their diet by hunting and gathering. [64], Hunnish mercenaries are mentioned on several occasions being employed by the East and West Romans, as well as the Goths, during the late 4th and 5th century. [18], Recent scholarship, particularly by Hyun Jin Kim and Etienne de la Vaissière, has revived the hypothesis that the Huns and the Xiongnu are one and the same. [111] Ammianus also mentions that the Huns made their decisions in a general council (omnes in commune) while seated on horse back. [121] He makes no mention of the Huns being organized into tribes, but Priscus and other writers do, naming some of them. [289], On 27 July 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion in China, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany gave the order to act ruthlessly towards the rebels: "Mercy will not be shown, prisoners will not be taken. It is also known that the Huns had a language of their own, however only three words and personal names attest to it. [153] Hunnic women seem to have worn necklaces and bracelets of mostly imported beads of various materials as well. This title would then have been inherited as it was passed down the clan. [61] At the same time, the Huns invaded the Sasanian Empire. [242], The Huns also play an important role in Germanic heroic legends, which frequently convey versions of events from the migration period and were originally transmitted orally. Eurasian nomads such as the Huns typically used trilobate diamond shaped iron arrowheads, attached using birch tar and a tang, with typically 75 cm shafts and fletching attached with tar and sinew whipping. The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. [14] The Sasanian Empire temporarily lost to the Kidarites in 453 AD, falling into a tributary relationship, while the Gupta Empire repelled the Kidarites in 455 AD, under emperor Skandagupta. [57], The Romans became aware of the Huns when the latter's invasion of the Pontic steppes forced thousands of Goths to move to the Lower Danube to seek refuge in the Roman Empire in 376. [111][112] Denis Sinor similarly notes that, with the exception of the historically uncertain Balamber, no Hun leaders are named in the sources until Uldin, indicating their relative unimportance. [220], According to the Strategikon, the Huns did not form a battle line in the method that the Romans and Persians used, but in irregularly sized divisions in a single line, and keep a separate force nearby for ambushes and as a reserve. [151] Maenchen-Helfen believes that the Huns likely had "tents of felt and sheepskin": Priscus once mentions Attila's tent, and Jordanes reports that Attila lay in state in a silk tent. After Attila's death in 453, the Huns ceased to be a major threat to Rome and lost much of their empire following the Battle of Nedao (454?). [70] However, this did not result in the complete collapse of Hunnic power in the Carpathian region, but did result in the loss of many of their Germanic vassals. He devastated the Balkans and drove south into Greece as far as Thermopylae. [31] Robert Werner has suggested an etymology from Tocharian ku (dog), suggesting based on the fact that the Chinese called the Xiongnu dogs that the dog was the totem animal of the Hunnic tribe. [84], Ancient sources uniformly deny that the Huns practiced any sort of agriculture. The following year, Attila renewed his claims to Honoria and territory in the Western Roman Empire. Topics Sorted by Last Post [44], Maenchen-Helfen notes that pastoral nomads (or "seminomads") typically alternate between summer pastures and winter quarters: while the pastures may vary, the winter quarters always remained the same. [192] Movses also records that the Caucasian Huns worshipped trees and burnt horses as sacrifices to Tengri,[192] and that they "made sacrifices to fire and water and to certain gods of the roads, and to the moon and to all creatures considered in their eyes to be in some way remarkable. [35], Ancient descriptions of the Huns are uniform in stressing their strange appearance from a Roman perspective. [46] Other archaeologists have argued that "Mongoloid" features are found primarily among members of the Hunnic aristocracy,[47] which, however, also included Germanic leaders who were integrated into the Hun polity. The Huns may have stimulated the Great Migration, a contributing factor in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. In 447, Attila invaded the Balkans and Thrace. [247] Maenchen-Helfen, however, doubts the use of the name by the Anglo-Saxons had anything to do with the Huns, arguing that it was "not a rare name. [284] A majority of the Hungarian aristocracy continued to ascribe to the Hunnic view into the early twentieth century. Hoping to avoid the sack of Rome, Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as Pope Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua, and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the emperor. Among these are a number of Christian hagiographic legends in which the Huns play a role. [28], The etymology of Hun is unclear. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huns&oldid=1018457084, States and territories established in the 4th century, States and territories disestablished in the 5th century, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 18 April 2021, at 05:32. [143] He argues from the state of the bronze castings that the Huns were not very good metalsmiths, and that it is likely that the cauldrons were cast in the same locations where they were found. [30] Maenchen-Helfen himself proposes an Iranian etymology, from a word akin to Avestan hūnarā (skill), hūnaravant- (skillful), and suggests that it may originally have designated a rank rather than an ethnicity. The most prominent of these were Chionites, the Kidarites, and the Hephthalites. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Some scholars also argue that another group identified in ancient sources as Huns, the North Caucasian Huns, were genuine Huns. [100], Civilians and soldiers captured by the Huns might also be ransomed back, or else sold to Roman slave dealers as slaves. [174] However, given the small corpus, many hold the language to be unclassifiable. [49], Damgaard et al. [119] He further argues that they most likely did not acquire their position purely heriditarily. [80], Ammianus reports that the Huns had no buildings,[158] but in passing mentions that the Huns possessed tents and wagons. [179] Priscus was able to enter the tent of Attila's chief wife, Hereca, without difficulty. Discovering the land good, they then attacked the Goths. However, in 453 he died of a haemorrhage on his wedding night. [2] Since Guignes' time, considerable scholarly effort has been devoted to investigating such a connection. In 451, the Huns invaded the Western Roman province of Gaul, where they fought a combined army of Romans and Visigoths at the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, and in 452 they invaded Italy. [274], Generally, the proof of the relationship between the Hungarian and the Finno-Ugric languages in the nineteenth century is taken to have scientifically disproven the Hunnic origins of the Hungarians. In 451, Attila's forces entered Gaul. [11], Since Joseph de Guignes in the 18th century, modern historians have associated the Huns who appeared on the borders of Europe in the 4th century AD with the Xiongnu who had invaded China from the territory of present-day Mongolia between the 3rd century BC and the 2nd century AD. [215][216], The Huns are almost always noted as fighting alongside non-Hunnic, Germanic or Iranian subject peoples or, in earlier times, allies. Uldin himself escaped back across the Danube, after which he is not mentioned again. This is mentioned by the writers Zosimus and Agathias. [167] Some scholars have argued that Gothic was used as the lingua franca of the Hunnic Empire. [55], In an interdiciplinary study, Savelyev & Jeong 2020 found no clear evidence of continuity between the Xiongnu and the Huns, and concluded that no genetic evidence suggest that the steppe component of the Huns was derived from the Xiongnu or other populations of the eastern steppe. [54] The results were consistent with a Xiongnu origin of the Huns. They had no settled homes and no kings; each group was led by primates, as Ammianus called them. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. [199][187], In addition to these Pagan beliefs, there are numerous attestations of Huns converting to Christianity and receiving Christian missionaries. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. [103] Priscus attests that slaves were used as domestic servants, but also that educated slaves were used by the Huns in positions of administration or even architects. [122] Kim however argues that Uldin is actually a title and that he was likely merely a subking. [16] Additionally, several scholars have questioned the identification of the "Iranian Huns" with the European Huns. Appearing from beyond the Volga River some years after the middle of the 4th century, they first overran the Alani, who occupied the plains between the Volga and the Don rivers, and then quickly overthrew the empire of the Ostrogoths between the Don and the Dniester. Chinese sources on the History of the Niusi-Wusi-Asi(oi)-Rishi(ka)-Arsi-Arshi-Ruzhi and their Kueishuang-Kushan Dynasty. [93] Roman sources characterize the Hunnic horses as ugly. Unfortunately, the nomadic nature of Hun society means that they have left very little in the archaeological record. Throughout their raids on the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns had maintained good relations with the Western Empire. About 445 Attila murdered his brother Bleda and in 447, for unknown reasons, made his second great attack on the Eastern Roman Empire. [275] Another claim, also derived from Simon of Kéza,[276] is that the Hungarian-speaking Székely people of Transylvania are descended from Huns, who fled to Transylvania after Attila's death, and remained there until the Hungarian conquest of Pannonia. In the 18th century, the French scholar Joseph de Guignes became the first to propose a link between the Huns and the Xiongnu people, who were northern neighbours of China from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. From the Birth of the Ideology to Modernity – an Outline of the Problem", "Artificially deformed crania from the Hun-Germanic Period (5th–6th century AD) in northeastern Hungary: historical and morphological analysis", "Y-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin", "The Dating of Widsið and the Study of Germanic Antiquity", "Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West". The Huns, especially under their King Attila, made frequent and devastating raids into the Eastern Roman Empire. [165], A variety of languages were spoken within the Hun Empire. [37] Various writers mention that the Huns had small eyes and flat noses. About 470 he entered Italy with the Sciri; he joined [60] Huns attacked in Thrace, overran Armenia, and pillaged Cappadocia. Qin Shi Huang was not the first one to build the Great Wall. Their main military technique was mounted archery. [264][265] The first Hungarian author to claim that Hun and Hungarian peoples were related was Simon of Kéza in his Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum (1282–1285). He derives this belief from a Hunnic custom, attested in Ammianus, that the Huns did not wash their clothes: among later steppe peoples, this is done to avoid offending the water-spirits. Bleda died in 445, and Attila became the sole ruler of the Huns. Thompson supposes that even in war the leading men had little actual power. The war came to an end in 449 with an agreement in which the Romans agreed to pay Attila an annual tribute of 2100 pounds of gold. Huns attacked in Thrace, overran Armenia, and … It is almost as if the imperialist empire and the east and west had combined their response to a simultaneous Hunnic threat across Eurasia. [65] In 433 some parts of Pannonia were ceded to them by Flavius Aetius, the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire.[66]. They do not seem to have had a unified government when they entered Europe, but rather to have developed a unified tribal leadership in the course of their wars with the Romans. Updates? [237] In other versions, Attila takes the pope hostage and is forced by the saints to release him. [36] Jordanes stressed that the Huns were short of stature, had tanned skin and round and shapeless heads. [58] The Huns conquered the Alans, most of the Greuthungi or Eastern Goths, and then most of the Thervingi or Western Goths, with many fleeing into the Roman Empire. In 463, the Saragurs defeated the Akatziri, or Akatir Huns, and asserted dominance in the Pontic region. [138] At the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, Attila is noted by Jordanes to have placed his subject peoples in the wings of the army, while the Huns held the center. In 435 they forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the Treaty of Margus,[67] giving the Huns trade rights and an annual tribute from the Romans. Grab a copy of our NEW encyclopedia for Kids! The claim appears to have first arisen in non-Hungarian sources and only gradually been taken up by the Hungarians themselves because of its negative connotations. [219] The Hunnish peoples did not set up an entrenched camp, but spread out across the grazing fields according to clan, and guard their necessary horses until they began forming the battle line under the cover of early morning. [56], Keyser et al. [159] However, by the middle of the fifth century, the Huns are also known to have also owned permanent wooden houses, which Maenchen-Helfen believes were built by their Gothic subjects. Thompson takes Uldin's sudden disappearance after he was unsuccessful at war as a sign that the Hunnic kingship was "democratic" at this time rather than a permanent institution. The authors of the study suggested that the Huns were descended from Xiongnu who expanded westwards and mixed with Sakas. "[151], Both ancient sources and archaeological finds from graves confirm that the Huns wore elaborately decorated golden or gold-plated diadems. Known by name is Uldin invaded the Sasanian Empire their supposed primitiveness a Hun burial Concesti! 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